How can astronomers be sure that their measurements of distances to galaxies are accurate? They measure the distance using multiple independent methods. Which of the following is NOT a type of galaxy identified by Hubble?

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The mass of the Galaxy can be determined by measuring the orbital velocities of stars and interstellar matter.

We can detect the dark matter through gravitational lensing, which detects shifts in light produced by distant celestial objects [5]. The bright spots outside the colored areas are stars and galaxies that are not part of the Bullet Cluster (Credit: X-ray: NASA/CXC/CfA/ M.

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What is the estimated percentage of dark matter in the universe? 90 percent.

Only five percent of the universe is visible. What is the rest made up of? The visible universe”including Earth, the sun, other stars, and galaxies”is made of protons, neutrons, and electrons bundled together into atoms.

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The greater the influence, the higher the contribution of dark energy to the total mass-energy content of the universe. Earlier experiments have suggested that the universe is about 5 percent ordinary matter, 30 percent dark matter, and 65 percent dark energy.

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Dark matter is invisible, and scientists have long tried in vain to directly detect the mysterious particles. But since dark matter has mass, its presence is inferred based on the gravitational pull it exerts on regular matter.

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The first galaxies were identified in the 17th Century by the French astronomer Charles Messier, although at the time he did not know what they were. Messier, who was a keen observer of comets, spotted a number of other fuzzy objects in the sky which he knew were not comets.

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NEW YORK ” All the stars, planets and galaxies that can be seen today make up just 4 percent of the universe. The other 96 percent is made of stuff astronomers can’t see, detect or even comprehend.

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How do astronomers “see” dark matter? When observing the Milky Way Galaxy’s rotation curve, it has more of an upward slant, indicating that there is a lot more mass in our solar system than what we observe. The matter that we cannot observe, we call dark matter.

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Dark matter seems to outweigh visible matter roughly six to one, making up about 27% of the universe. Here’s a sobering fact: The matter we know and that makes up all stars and galaxies only accounts for 5% of the content of the universe!

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Why do we believe 90 percent of the mass of the Milky Way is in the form of dark matter? the orbital speeds of stars far from the galactic center are surprisingly high, suggesting that these stars are feeling gravitational effects from unseen matter in the halo. What does the universe look like on very large scales?

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1) Approximately 90 percent of the mass of the Milky Way is located in the halo of the galaxy in the form of dark matter.

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The Earth’s place in the galaxy was determined largely by an astronomer named Harlow Shapley. Shapley’s work was based on regularly pulsating variable stars and the concept of absolute luminosity.

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From spectral lines astronomers can determine not only the element, but the temperature and density of that element in the star. The spectral line also can tell us about any magnetic field of the star. The width of the line can tell us how fast the material is moving. We can learn about winds in stars from this.

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Traditionally, the most accurate method for determining the mass of distant stars is to measure the orbits of double star systems, called binaries. Newton’s laws of motion allow astronomers to calculate the masses of both stars by measuring their orbits with considerable accuracy.

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Key Concepts and Summary. The masses of stars can be determined by analysis of the orbit of binary stars“two stars that orbit a common center of mass. In visual binaries, the two stars can be seen separately in a telescope, whereas in a spectroscopic binary, only the spectrum reveals the presence of two stars.

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How do astronomers measure the masses of stars? the period and the semi-major axis. the larger the stellar mass, the larger the luminosity. the variation of Doppler shift of its spectral lines and hence of its speed toward or away from us.

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We can measure the masses of stars in binary star systems using Newton’s version of Kepler’s third law if we know the orbital period and separation of the two stars.

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How do astronomers measure stellar luminosities? Measure a stars apparent brightness and distance, then from these find its absolute magnitude which gives the stellar luminosity as the distance is removed. If the distance is unknown, it can be found from the stars temperature and radius (if these are known).

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Astronomers often measure the temperatures of stars by measuring their brightnesses through two or more optical filters, then fitting a blackbody curve to the results. The color index of a star is the ratio of its brightnesses measured through two standard filters.

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The only method for directly determining the masses of stars is from binary stars, using Newton’s form of Kepler’s 3rd law. There are three types of binary stars, which depend on how close they are to each other, their relative brightnesses, the distance of the binary, and other factors: a.

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What is the only way to measure the mass of a star accurately? Measure its gravitational effect on another object. Which sentence describes the relationship between mass and luminosity of stars on the main sequence?

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When the luminosity of main sequence stars is plotted against their masses, we observe a mass‐luminosity relationship, approximately of the form L ∝ M 3.5 (see Figure ). In other words, doubling the mass of a main sequence star produces an increase in luminosity by a factor 2 3.5 = 11 times.

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How are astronomers able to explore the layers of the sun below the photosphere? By measuring and modeling the modes of vibration of the sun’s surface.

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Since the Sun is made up of hot gas, there isn’t really a “surface” to it. Instead, as you move from space toward the Sun’s core, the gas gets denser and denser. The photosphere represents the depth at which we can see no deeper toward the core of the Sun.

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What is the evidence in the photosphere of the type of energy transport occurring beneath it? A certain type of energy transport (radiation, convection, or conduction) occurs just below the photosphere.

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How can astronomers detect neutrinos from the Sun? They observe nuclear reactions triggered by neutrino collisions in large underground pools of chemicals.

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The density of the material there is too low to produce much light. Why can’t we see the material below the surface of the photosphere? A. The density of the material there is too high to allow light to escape.

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How can astronomers detect structure in the chromosphere? Ans: The structure of the chromosphere is studied primarily using filtergrams. Filtergrams are images of the sun taken through a filter that lets in a very narrow wavelength band of light, such as light emitted by the Hydrogen-alpha transition.

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Instead, solar physicists study the sun’s interior the same way that geologists look deep into the Earth”via seismology. Just as earthquakes trigger seismic waves that travel through the Earth, shifting mass in the sun sends pressure waves rippling through its interior.

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The chromosphere can also be observed at particular wavelengths at which the chromosphere is bright by filtering out the other wavelengths. In addition to these, the corona can be observed at X-ray wavelengths.

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What evidence do we have that the chromosphere is hotter than the photosphere? Astronomers know that the chromosphere is hotter than the photosphere through observing the amount of ionization. They observe that the chromosphere is hot enough to produce x-rays that can be studied with telescopes.

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The Sun’s Spectrum is an Absorption Spectrum The result is an absorption spectrum, a continuous blackbody spectrum with dark absorption lines superimposed on it. The fact that we see an absorption spectrum when we look at the photosphere is evidence that the temperature of the photosphere decreases outwards.

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To observe neutrino interactions, detectors use photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) to detect individual photons. From the timing of the photons, it is possible to determine the time and place of the neutrino interaction.

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So how do you detect a neutrino? One common way is to fill a big tank with water. We know light slows down through water, and if a neutrino with enough energy happens to knock into an electron, the electron will zip through the water faster than the light does.

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Why are neutrinos so difficult to detect? They have a tendency to pass through just about any material without any interactions.

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How do astronomers know the composition of the outer layers of the Sun? We take an absorption line spectrum of the Sun. These absorption lines tell us what elements are present in the outer layers.

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one helium nucleus, as well as energy, positrons, and neutrinos. What do astronomers mean when they say that the Sun makes energy by hydrogen burning? a. The Sun is combusting hydrogen in a fire and releasing energy.

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Additionally, the footpoints on the sun’s surface, or photosphere, of these magnetic loops can be more precisely measured using an instrument called a magnetograph, which measures the strength and direction of magnetic fields.

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Professional astronomy They can examine the Sun in different wavelengths of light to see its surface and corona. They can use spectroscopy to see the elements produced in different parts of the Sun. They can study its radiation using radar, or its interior using techniques such as acoustic interferometry.

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Scientists study the Sun number in a number of ways including ground based telescopes and satellites to obtain as much information as possible. The atmosphere of the Sun varies in temperature so a whole range of wavelengths are needed to make complete observations.

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chromosphere, lowest layer of the Sun’s atmosphere, several thousand kilometres thick, located above the bright photosphere and below the extremely tenuous corona.

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Then, in 1973, the origins of the fast solar wind were identified. X-ray images of the corona taken from Skylab ” the U.S.’s first manned space station ” revealed that the fast wind spews from coronal holes, which are dark, comparatively cool regions on the Sun.